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Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of subject selection 70
Table 4.3 descriptive statistics of pilot study of MCDCT pre/post test . 70
Table 4.4 Descriptive statistics of PET by groups. 71
Table 4.5 Independent samples t-test of PET scores. 72
Table 4.6 Descriptive statistics of speech acts posttest by groups 73
Table 4.7 normality tests 74
Table 4.8 Independent samples t-test of Posttest scores. 75
Table 4.9 Pearson Correlation PET with Pretest and Posttest of Speech Acts. 76
Table 4.10 K-R21 Reliability. 77
Table 4.11Inter-Rater Reliability of the Writing Pretest 78
Table 4.12 Intra-Rater Reliability of the Writing Pretest 78

 
 
 
 
CHAPTER I

 

 

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

• Introduction

It is generally recognized that the goal of language teaching is to develop learner’s ability to communicate appropriately in a given target language and culture. This means that it is not enough for teaching practices to exclusively focus on the features of the target language linguistic system. Otherwise, inappropriate use of language can lead to pragmatic failure and those speakers who do not use pragmatically appropriate language run the risk of appearing uncooperative at very least or more seriously, rude or uncultured (Bardovi-Harlig, Hartford, Mahan-Taylor, Morgam, & Reynols, 1991).
Pragmatic ability in a second or foreign language is part of a nonnative speaker’s (NNS) communicative competence and therefore has to be located in a model of communicative ability (Savignon, 1991). In Bachman’s model (1990, p. 87ff), ‘language competence’ is subdivided into two components, ‘organizational competence’ and ‘pragmatic competence’. Organizational competence comprises knowledge of linguistic units and the rules of joining them together at the levels of sentence (‘grammatical competence’) and discourse (‘textual competence’). Pragmatic competence subdivides into ‘illocutionary competence’ and ‘sociolinguistic competence’. ‘Illocutionary competence’ can be glossed as ‘knowledge of communicative action and how to carry it out’. The term ‘communicative action’ is often more accurate than the more familiar term ‘speech act’ because communicative action is neutral between the spoken and written mode, and the term acknowledges the fact that communicative action can also be implemented by silence or non-verbally. ‘Sociolinguistic competence’ comprises the ability to use language appropriately according to context. It thus includes the ability to select communicative acts and appropriate strategies to implement them depending on the current status of the ‘conversational contract’ (Fraser, 1990).
Obviously, in EFL settings, one of the most dominant reasons is the learners’ transfer of speech act strategies from their native language (Ellis, 1994).
In recent years, with the unremitting development of Speech Act Theory, it has gradually emerged as an important topic and has been considered as a basic theory in pragmatics. A speech act as an action performed by means of language is an important element of communicative competence and the Speech Act Theory not only conveys the linguistic rules people share to create the acts, but also leads language learners to use this language tactfully or appropriately. It is believed that to learn a language is indeed to learn how to communicate in that language. However, evidence shows that many learners of English fail to achieve the tactful or appropriate use of English in their daily communication with native speakers. Thereby, researchers suggest that applying Speech Act Theory in language teaching has become increasingly imperative (Green, 2010).
One of instructional techniques the language teachers can use to increase learner’s achievement of speech acts is cooperative learning (Wright, 2010). Cooperative learning is an instructional technique that enables students to work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning (Ellis, 2008). Now cooperative learning is applied in almost all school content areas and increasingly, in college and university contexts all over the world and is claimed to be an effective teaching method in foreign/second language education by many scholars (Kessler, 1992, as cited in Brown, 2007).
Ochs and Schieffelin (2011) argue that a central tenet of second language development research is that learners’ participation in communicative practices are promoted but not totally determined by course books, teachers, or even the built environment. A very crucial factor to consider in the process of second language development, especially when it comes to the effective communication, is the presence of socially and culturally informed persons, peers, and the like. Within a cooperative atmosphere and based on the perspective which mainly stresses cooperation, not competition, learning will be promoted. This, of course could find enough supports in the constructivism literature (Jaramillo, 1996; Lantolf & Thorne, 2006; Mitchell & Myles, 2004; Van Lier, 2004; Vygotsky, 1986; Young, 1993), and is technically named scaffolding.
“Within the body of cooperative learning, scaffolding plays a crucial role. Particularly in the early stages of learning, an instructor might invite student participation in the task at hand.  “This practice engages the student in learning and provides her/ him with ownership of the learning experience” (Hogan and Pressley, 1997, p. 76). “For example, a teacher might write the decimal point on the chalkboard and then ask a student to identify the next step in converting a fraction to a decimal.  The student might be invited to participate verbally or she might be asked to come to the chalkboard and contribute her ideas or strategies in writing.  Rather than asking a student for direct participation, an instructor might scaffold learning by asking students to contribute clues or ideas” (Hogan and Pressley, 1997, p. 91).
According to Van Lire (2004), there are many benefits of cooperative learning, and it should have its place in the classroom for several reasons. Humans are social beings that learn extremely well through interaction. While using methods of cooperative learning, students will develop a sense of community and commitment. This method of learning also supports positive peer teaching and learning which is beneficial as well.
Cooperative learning can also be focused on from the perspective of motivation: Motivational perspectives on cooperative learning focus primarily on the reward or goal structures under which students operate (Slavin, 1995). From this perspective, cooperative incentive structures create a situation in which the only way group members can attain their own personal goals is if the group is successful. Therefore, to meet their personal goals, group members must both help their group-mates to do whatever helps the group to succeed and, perhaps even more importantly, to encourage their group-mates to exert maximum efforts. In other words, rewarding groups based on group performance (or the sum of individual performances) creates an interpersonal reward structure, in which group members will give or withhold social reinforces (e.g., praise, encouragement) in response to group-mates’ task-related efforts (Slavin,1983).
Cooperative learning can create a situational perspective for the second language learners named “the social cohesion perspective” (Cohen, 1994), which is an emphasis on teambuilding activities in preparation for cooperative learning and processing or group self-evaluation during and after

 group activities.

It is generally asserted that cooperative learning is a highly appropriate option for all students because it emphasizes active interaction among individuals of diverse abilities and background (Yule, 1996) and demonstrates more positive student outcomes in academic achievement, social behavior and effective development.
One of instructional techniques language teachers can use to increase learner’s achievement of speech acts is competitive learning, and according to Johnson, Johnson, and Stanne (2000), competitive learning is that kind of learning in which the students have got to work against each other for the purpose on achieving a good grade. So one student should achieve the goal and another one is bound to fail. Thus the competitive learning can be interpersonal of inter-group. Competitive learning is of great value if the students want to view the material they have learned.
Competitive learning exists when one student goal is achieved but all other students fail to reach that goal (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Competitive learning can be interpersonal (between individuals), or intergroup (between groups), where a group setting is appropriate. This strategy has been described as the most appropriate when students need to review learned materials (Griffiths & Podirsky, 2002).  However, there have been many

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 criticisms of this type of learning, including promoting high anxiety levels, self-doubt, selfishness, and aggression. It may also promote cheating and interfere with learners’ capacity to problem-solveing (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Competitive interaction strategy could be used in the studies where students work in subgroups. This way Members of each subgroup work strictly on his/her own, strive to be the best in the subgroup for price or reward.

Literature evidence concerning the relative effectiveness of and practical preferences of pundits among these teaching techniques have been varied and mixed. In a study carried out by Dowell (1975, cited in Pneuman, 2009) on the effectiveness of a competitive and cooperative on the comprehension of a cognitive task, he stated that the students in the cooperative learning environment performed better than they did in a competitive environment. Alebiosu (1998) was of the view that students exposed to cooperative learning strategies performed significantly better in all the skills than their counterparts exposed to competitive or individualistic learning strategies. Johnson and Johnson (1991) contended that achievement outcomes were actually more accepted in competitive settings for high self-concept children than in the cooperative settings. Esan (1999, as cited in Pneuman, 2009) was of the view that individualistic setting showed a positive attitude towards mathematics than both cooperative and competitive setting. Okebukola and Ogunniyi (1984) presented that the cooperative arrangement was better for promoting achievement while the competitive arrangement was better for practical skills. Ojo and Egbon (2005) were of the view that the cooperative learning environment was found to be more conducive to learning than the competitive setting. Okediji, Anene, and Afolabi (2006) found that cooperative learning strategy groups performed significantly better than their non-cooperative counterparts, but found no significant difference in performance between competitive and noncompetitive learning strategy groups. There was also no significant interaction effect of cooperation and competition.

• Statement of the Problem

According to Hudson, Detmer, and Brown (1995), speech act categories are cultural concepts, and they vary from one society to another. For instance, there is considerable variation in address form use, across languages, across national boundaries, across social groups within the same country from one individual to the next, and even in the behavior of the same person. Therefore, it is not enough for foreign language learners only to know the language, but it is important for them to be able to communicate correctly and effectively, foreign language learners need to understand what the purpose of speech act is

ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY Central Tehran Branch Faculty of Foreign Languages – Department of English A ...

۴.۲.۲.۹. Reduction and Expansion. 115
۴.۲.۲.۱۰. Couplets, Triplets, and Quadruplets. 116
۴.۲.۲.۱۱. Notes, Additions, and Glosses. 117
۴.۳. Analysis of the Data. 121
Chapter V: Conclusion, Implications, and Suggestions for Further Research 126
۵.۱. Introduction. 127
۵.۲. Conclusion. 128
۵.۳. Pedagogical Implications 130
۵.۴. Suggestions for Further Research. 132
References 134
Appendixes 139

 

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Food. 18
Table 2: Clothes. 18
Table 3: Housing. 18
Table 4: Transport 18
Table 5: Work. 18
Table 6: Leisure. 18
Table 7: Political and Administrative. 18
Table 8: Religious. 18
Table 9: Artistic. 18
Table 10: Historical Terms. 18
Table 11: Gestures and Habits. 18
Table 12: Transference. 18
Table 13: Naturalization. 18
Table 14: Cultural Equivalent 18
Table 15: Functional Equivalent 18
Table 16: Descriptive Equivalent 18
Table 17: Synonymy. 18
Table 18: Through-translation. 18
Table 19: Shifts. 18
Table 20: Reduction. 18
Table 21: Couplets. 18
Table 22: Triplets. 18
Table 23: Additions. 18
Table 24: Notes. 18
Table 25: Overall frequencies of cultural presuppositions. 18
Table 26: Overall frequencies of translation strategies. 18
Table 27: All cultural presuppositions separately for each short story. 18
Table 28: All cultural presuppositions and their translation strategies. 18

LIST OF GRAPHS

Graph 1: Percentages of Cultural Presuppositions. 18
Graph 2: Percentages of Translation Strategies. 18

 

ABSTRACT

Translation as a way to transfer the meaning is a kind of activity that involves not only two languages, but also two cultures. Like any other field of study, translation deals with all the aspects of human life such as social, industrial, and cultural. In other words it is not enough for translators to have a good command of both the source and target languages; they have to be completely aware of both the source and target cultures. Each culture creates certain messages, connotations, and denotations. Therefore it is likely that many concepts occur in one language and culture but not in the other. In other words, one of the major problems facing translators is how to find equivalents for implicit ideas, opinions, and presuppositions, which have their bases in their underlying cultures. Facing with unshared elements of culture, namely cultural presuppositions, between the source and target language, translators have a variety of options to treat the cultural aspects of the ST and finding the most appropriate strategy to convey these aspects in the TT. The present study will focus on different translation strategies which the Persian translators of James Joyce’s “Dubliners” (۲۰۰۱) have applied to deal with translation problems rooted in cultural presuppositions. The process of classification of cultural presuppositions and the translation strategies for dealing with them is based on Newmark’s (1988) translation categorizations.

CHAPTER I

Background and Purpose

۱.۱ Introduction

Translating as an activity is almost as old as mankind, but the history of translation as a discipline dates back to no more than two decades ago (Schaffner & Kelly-Holms, 1995). In this short period of systematic investigation of this discipline, the nature of such studies has undergone a drastic change. Traditionally there has been a dividing line between the language and the extra linguistic reality. Although there have been different definitions of translation but most of them emphasized the linguistic aspects of the translation process. For instance, Catford’s (1974) definition of translation is as follows: “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language.” (P.20). As it can be seen here what is significant is the equivalent textual material. Next, Newmark (1981) defines translation in this way: “Translation is a craft, consisting of two languages, in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in another language” (P.7).
Defining translation seems simple at first glance and there are many definitions of this kind. However, translation is not strictly limited to language, rather, language and culture are deeply intertwined and it is the translation which bridges the gap between different languages and hence, cultures. Here it is clear that these definitions by famous theoreticians exclude the factor of culture in translation. As Snell-Hornby (1988) claims, translation must be regarded something more than merely transcending the linguistic elements from one language to another. It has recently come to be understood as a cultural system and it was to be treated with delicate observing the cultural aspects. Gradually some theorists confirm this fact that translation is an activity which involves a kind of verbal, but never strictly verbal communication. Miremadi (1991), for instance, has stated: “it is a two-way process: from one culture to the others and form other cultures into one’s culture. In other words, there is a give and take process” (P.11). Toury (1978) also believes that “Translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions” (P.200). The reason for such a drastic change in the point of view toward the translation studies is that the contemporary approach sees language as the integral part of culture. Language is an expression of culture and individuality of its speakers; so cultural meanings are intricately woven into the texture of the language.
Newmark (1988) defines culture as: “the way of life and its manifestation that is peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” (P.93). Culture is a complex collection of experiences which condition daily life; it includes history, social structure, religious, traditional

 customs and every day usage. Translating as an activity and translation as the result of this activity are inseparable from the concept of culture.

Regarding this definition, it is clear that there are many words and expressions that differ from one culture to another; for instance, way of living varies from one society to another according to the beliefs of the people, the situation in which they live, the technological advances, etc. So, every culture has its own characteristics. The people of a special society know the characteristics of their culture while the people of other communities are not able to understand it. Histories of different societies and cultures are characterized by events and processes that shape their cultural cognition. It is possible that different events and processes have similar effects on language use and it is also possible that similar processes and events have different impacts on the structure of a language and how it is used by its speakers. Speakers of different languages exhibit different verbal and nonverbal behaviors in their interactions and the possibilities of misunderstanding are rife when two totally different cultures come into contact with each other. It is worth to mention here that what is interesting for people of a society within their own culture may not be enjoyable for people in another society. Each culture expresses its idiosyncrasies in a way that is “culture-bound”. That is, the origin and use of cultural words and idiomatic expressions are intrinsically and uniquely bound to the culture concerned. Since the culture of a community can determine its language, the vocabulary of a language

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 are created and used by the people of that society according to their needs in the specific culture in which they are living. Therefore, translators obviously do not deal with translating individual words deprived of context, but deal with whole texts which are culturally embedded and based on a community of references predictably shared by most members of the source culture. The deeper a text is embedded in its culture, the more difficult it is to work on.

A “cultural presuppositions” item is created in situations when there is nonexistence on the different value of an item in the target language culture and a conflict will arise in the process of translating these kinds of items. It is clear that a word often does not mean exactly the same thing as its equivalent in another language. Ping (1999) defined Cultural presupposition as underlying assumptions, beliefs, and ideas that are culturally rooted, widespread, but rarely if ever described or defined because they seem so basic and obvious as not to require verbal formulation. Therefore, there may be some vocabulary in some cultures for which there is no equivalence in another one. Here is the point where translation problems will arise and there should be a solution.
Newmark (1988) believed that the translation of a work attempts to produce on its reader an effect as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. However, with culturally-bound words this is often impossible. Indeed, the meaning which lies behind those kinds of expressions is always strongly linked to the specific cultural context where the text originates or with the cultural context it aims to re-create. As this statement implies, translators are permanently faces with the problem of how to treat the cultural aspects implicit in the source text (ST) and of finding the most appropriate technique of successfully conveying these aspects in the target language. These problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the two languages concerned (Nida, 1985). Therefore, one of the most challenging tasks for all translators is how to render culture-specific elements in translating a foreign language. So, having a good understanding of both cultures can be helpful for the translator. S/he should look at differences between cultures which are a very important issue in translation of any kind and translation of literature is no exception. Indeed, not much attention has been paid to this problem by translation theories.
Literary translators face a far more complicated process. They require knowledge of linguistics, an appreciation of literature and an awareness of literary terms and concepts. Literature gives public form to private meanings and thus helps those who receive its messages to reach out to other human beings in the

ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY AT CENTRAL TEHRAN GRADUATE SCHOOL ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

.۶. Suggestions for Further Studies83
REFERENCES85
APPENDICES.123
Appendix A:  PTE 1 (used for homogenization)124
Appendix B:  PET 2 (used  as  post-treatment  test).144

 
CHAPTER  I
 
BACKGROUD  AND  PURPOSE
 
 

 
۱.۱. Introduction
Education  and  learning  need  some  special  techniques  to  indulge  learners  more  deeply  and  efficiently-  techniques  that  involve  learners  to  become  more  independent  and  at  the  same  time  more  thoughtful. It  is  a  rather  recent  issue  that  educators  are  focusing  their  attention  to  critical  thinking  and  autonomy  on  different  skills,  although “ critical  thinking  is  as  integral  part  of  education  and  training  in  schools  of  foreign  and  second  language  instruction” (  Shangarffam  &  Mamipour,  ۲۰۱۱,  p.1 ),  and  so  is  autonomy.

Writing  is  one  of  the  most  effective  ways  of  conveying  ideas  and  thoughts  to  others,  so  learning  to  write  is   important  because  without  it  education,  and  more  important,  communications  will  be  defective  and  will  face  problems.

According  to  Pemberton  and  Nix  (۲۰۱۲),  writing,  autonomy,  and  critical  thinking  seem  to  be  linked  to  each  other,  and  proficiency  in  writing  can  be  a  sign  of  students’  autonomy,    critical  thinking  ,and  reasoning  skills  on  the  other  hand.  Critical thinking  and  autonomy  are  both  considered  desirable  educational  goals.  Raya,  Lamb,  and  Vieira  (۲۰۰۷),  mention  that  “The competence  to  think  critically  is  coextensive  with  the  notion  of  autonomy  and  self-sufficiency”  (p.43).  And  in  the  same  way,  Little  (۱۹۹۱)  explains  autonomy  as  an  ability  “for  detachment,  critical  reflection,  decision  making,  and  independent  action”(p.4).  Therefore,  it  is  important  that  teachers  help  students  develop  exploring  ways  for  autonomy  and  critical  thinking  (Pemberton  &  Nix,  ۲۰۱۲).  Consequently,  it  seems  that  teaching  learners  to  become  autonomous  and  at  the  same time critical  thinkers  is  probably  a vital  factor  in  their  progress.

In  line  with  the  ongoing  development  in  communication  and  definitely  writing,  the  methods  that  teachers  use  to  help  foster  learners’  autonomy,  and  make  a  “paradigm  shift  from  teacher-centered  to  learner-centered  instruction”  (Jacobs  &  Farrell,  ۲۰۰۲,  ۱۲)  are  considered  very  important  ,and  as  Wu  Li-li  (۲۰۰۸)  mentions   with  the  growing  need  of  language  teaching  in  communication-oriented  way  nowadays,  language  teaching  is  facing  a  challenge  and  is  being  substituted  by  the  learner-centered  one.  As  a  result, the  learner-centered  approach  made  the  concept  of  learners’  autonomy      emerge (Bagheri  &  Aeen,  ۲۰۱۱).
Nowadays,  learner  autonomy  is  considered  as  “an  unquestionable  goal  and  integral  part  of  language  learning  methodologies  throughout  the  world.  Large  amounts  of  time,  energy,  and  money  are  spent  on  its  promotion  and  implementation”  (Reinders,  ۲۰۰۰,  p.2).  In  fact  learner  autonomy  seems  to  become  important  because  of  the  motive  that  it  creates  in  learners.  Learning  autonomy  emphasizes  language  learners’  role  as  an  active  participant  in  his/her  learning  who  has  “a  choice  as  what  and  how  of  the  curriculum  can  be  used  in  learning”,  and  also,  “has  a  responsible  feeling  for  his/her  own  learning”  (Jacobs  &  Farrell,  ۲۰۰۱,  p.7).

According  to  Bagheri  and  Aeen  (۲۰۱۱),  although  there  are  very  trivial  differences  in  the  way  that  scholars  and  language  teachers  express  their  understanding  of  learners’  autonomy,    they  all  agree  with the  importance  of  autonomy  in  motivating  learners,  and  the  result  is    better  and  effective  work  of  autonomous  learners.  They  added  that  autonomous  learners  are  more  initiative  and  creative  in  learning,  and  this  leads  to  more  useful  classroom  instruction.  When  learners  have  the  freedom  to  choose  the  kind  of  curriculum  and  instruction,  the  result  is  choosing  the  best  that  matches  their  learning  styles  and  preferences  and  finally  more  effective  learning  happens.   According  to  Benson  (۲۰۱۰),  “When  we  talk  about  autonomy,  we  refer  more  to  a  certain  kind  of  relationship  between  the  student  and  the  learning  process.”  (p.79).  To  be  autonomous  means  “to  be  directed  by  considerations,  desires,  conditions,  and  characteristics  that  are  not  simply  imposed  externally  upon  one,  but  are  part  of  what  can  somehow  be  considered  one’s  authentic  self” (Christman,  ۲۰۰۸, p.1).
Autonomy has  been  considered  an  important  factor  in  educational  settings  during  recent  years.“The  development  of  autonomy  as  an  educational  aim  is  the  development  of  a  kind  of  person  whose  thought  and  action  in  important  areas  of  his  life  are  to  be  explained  by  reference  to  his  own  choices,  decisions,  reflections,  deliberations  –  in  short,  his  own  activity  of  mind”  (Dearden,   as  cited  in  Cuypers,  ۲۰۰۴,  p.1).  According  to    Candy, (1991, as cited in Thanasoulas,  ۲۰۰۲),  autonomy  is  a  dynamic  process  that  is  considered  as   educational   interventions,  so  it  helps  learners  to  gain  more  control  over  their  own  learning,  and  at  the  same  time  it  motivates  learners’  thinking  critically  about  different  issues  during  learning;  however,  learners  differ  in  their  learning  strategies,  interests,  needs,  ideas,  and  the  way  of  thinking,  therefore  they  develop  varying  degrees  of  autonomous  and  critical  thinking  throughout  their  learning  processes.  In  this  regard,  instructing  autonomy  and  critical  thinking  may  help  students  to  take  charge  of  their  own  learning  more  efficiently.
On  the  other  hand,  writing  is  a  means  of  developing  and  conveying  ideas  to  others.  Therefore,  it  needs  creating  meanings,  doing  it  autonomously,  and  thinking  critically  about  it.  Wade ( as cited in Al-Hazmi,   ۲۰۰۶)  mentions  that  writing  plays  an  essential  role  in  critical  thinking  instruction,  because  it  improves  more  self-reflection.  White  and  McGovern  (as  cited  in  Bagheri  &  Aeen,  ۲۰۱۱)  believe  that  process  approach  of  writing  creates  self-critical  ones  because  it  makes  students    reflect  on  their  understanding,  to  communicate  their  feelings  about  what  they 

 know,  and  how  they  are  experiencing  their  learning.

According  to  Siegel  (as  cited  in    Cuypers,  ۲۰۰۴,  p.4),  critical  thinking  is  a  highly  significant  educational  notion.     An  investigation  done  by   Alsagoff   (۲۰۰۸, as cited  in  Jimenez,  Ramos,  Rosales, &  Soraya,   ۲۰۱۰,  p.18)   characterizes “ critical  thinking  as  the  intellectual  disciplined  process  of  actively  and  skillfully  conceptualizing,  applying,  analyzing,  synthesizing,  and/or  evaluating  information  gathered  from,  or  generated  by,  observation,  experience,  reflection,  reasoning,  or  communication,  as  a  guide  to  belief  and  action”. And  all  the  mentioned  factors  plus  autonomy  are  necessary  factors  in  writing  effectively.
Simpson  and  Courtney  (۲۰۰۲)  state  that  in  critical  thinking  one  tries  to  determine  what  to  do  or  what  to  believe,  and  to  apply  critical  thinking  skills  to  one  another.  It  means,  one  analyzes  one’s  own  inferences,  explains  one’s  own  interpretation  or  evaluates  one’s  own  analysis.  On  the  other  hand,  Holec  (۱۹۸۱)  defines  autonomy  as  the  “ability  to  take  charge  of  one’s  own  learning”(p.3)  that  can  be  in  line  with  one’s  critical  thinking  and  maybe  with  the  same  impact  on  one’s  learning.  Critical  thinking  is  also  considered  as  a  cognitive  ability  that  is  affected  by  multiple  skills  such  as  identifying,  understanding,  and  analyzing  an issue  by  using  inferences  through  top-down  and  bottom-up  strategies  to  validate  the 

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 reliability  of  claims  and  arguments(Pithers  &  Soden,  ۲۰۰۰).  This  suggests  that  critical  thinking  is  a  complex  concept  that  can  be  used  to  support  assumptions,  information,  and  claims  in  EFL  writing  ( Barnawi,  ۲۰۱۰,  p.2).  As  a  result,  all  factors  affecting  writing  are  considered  important,  and  autonomy  and  critical  thinking  are  two  variables  that  can  be  in   relation  to  writing.

۱.۲. Statement  of  the  Problem
There  is  a  great  lack  in  researches  on  the  comparative  impact  of  autonomy  and  critical  thinking ,  although  studies  on  the  impact  of  two  of  the  variables separately –   autonomy  on  writing  (  Bagheri &  Aeen,  ۲۰۱۱),  or  critical  thinking  on writing (Mamipour &  Shangarffam,  ۲۰۱۱) –  showed  a  significantly  positive  impact  .
Learning  is  considered  as  a  long  process  of  gaining  knowledge  which  needs  great  effort,  and  traditionally  all  the  time  students  were  asked  to  gain  knowledge  by  listening  to  their  teachers  and  following  their  instructions  (Zhang  &  Wu,  ۲۰۰۴,  as  cited  in  Li  Yahong,  ۲۰۰۹,  p.1),  and  also  teachers  traditionally  controlled  everything  in  the  classroom  and  they  believed  transmitting  knowledge  to  students  as  their  main  duty  (Zhang,  ۲۰۰۶).  As  a  result,  they  spoke  most  of  the  classroom  time  while  students  were  expected  to  listen  to  them,  take  notes,  and  memorize  their  notes  (Zhang,  ۲۰۰۶),  rather  than  thinking  critically  about  what  they  are  taught  and  developing  their  own  ideas  by  talking  to  their  classmates  and  teachers  or  even  raising  some  novel  questions  about  different  issues.

It seems that teachers  are  usually  in  a  higher  position  to  encourage  their  students  to  do  what  they  think  is  the  best  for  their  students’  learning  ;  whilst  students’  abilities to  take  charge  of  their  own  learning  alongside  their   teachers’  guidance,  and  think  critically  about  different  issues  are  ignored.  It  seems  that  it  does  not  create  much  sense  of  satisfactory  in  students  in  their  learning,  because  there are a lot of groans about   the language  teaching  system in Iran   and to the researcher’s knowledge,  a lot of them  believe  they  could  have  better  performance  if  they  were  allowed  to  have  more  freedom  in  choosing  learning  strategies  and discuss issues critically.  .

Several studies  have  been  done  to  check  the  effects  of  critical  thinking  on  language  learning,  such  as  Naeini  (۲۰۰۵)    in which she  found  that  the  experimental  group  (group  with  critical  thinking  technique)  outperformed  the  control  group.  On  the  other  hand,  according  to  some  contemporary  researches  such  as  the  one  conducted  by  Bagheri  and  Aeen  (۲۰۱۱),  autonomy  can  also  prepare  a  chance  for  learners  to  set  their  learning  goals,  and  try  to  achieve  them.     Marashi  and  Jafari  (۲۰۱۲),  also  found  that  critical  thinking  positively affects  learners’  writing.

دانشکده علوم انسانی کاربرد راهبردهای انگیزشی در آموزش زبان انگلیسی به عنوان زبان خارجی استاد راهنما: ...

۳.۴. Design  ۹۵
۳.۵.Procedure  ۹۵
۳.۵.۱.Piloting  ۹۵
۳.۵.۲.Data collection  ۹۶
۳.۶. Data Analysis  ۹۷
CHAPTER FOUR- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION   ۱۰۱
۴.۱. Overview   ۱۰۲
۴.۲. Research Question 1  ۱۰۲
۴.۲.۱. Results  ۱۰۲
۴.۲.۲. Discussions  ۱۰۹
۴.۳. Research Question 2  ۱۱۰
۴.۳.۱. Results  ۱۱۰
۴.۳.۲. Discussions  ۱۱۱
۴.۴. Research Question 3  ۱۱۲
۴.۴.۱. Results  ۱۱۲
۴.۴.۲. Discussions  ۱۱۴
۴.۵. Research Question 4  ۱۱۵
۴.۵.۱. Results  ۱۱۵
۴.۵.۲. Discussions  ۱۱۷
CHAPTER FIVE-CONCLUSION, PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH   ۱۱۸
۵.۱. Overview   ۱۱۹
۵.۲. Conclusion  ۱۱۹
۵.۳.Pedagogical Implications  ۱۲۱
۵.۴.Suggestions for Further research  ۱۲۶
References 137

List of Appendixes
Appendix 1: English version of Frequency Questionnaires  ۱۲۷
Appendix 2: English version of Importance Questionnaires  ۱۳۰
Appendix 3: Farsi version of Frequency Questionnaires  ۱۳۳
Appendix 4: Farsi version of Importance Questionnaires  ۱۳۵

List of Tables
Table 3.1. Gender of Participants  ۹۳
Table 3.2. EFL Teaching Experience of Participants  ۹۳
Table 3.3. Importance and Frequency Survey Results: Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies  ۹۹
Table 4.1. Importance Questionnaires Results:  Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies  ۱۰۳
Table 4.2. Comparison of the Final Rank Order of the Macro-strategies/scales Obtained in This Study and in Hungary (1998), Taiwan (2007) 110
Table 4.3.  Frequency Questionnaires Results:  Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies  ۱۱۲
Table 4.4. Pearson Correlation Results between Overall Means of Motivational   Strategies of the Importance and Frequency Questionnaires  ۱۱۵
Table 4.5.  Pearson Correlation Results between Macro and Micro-strategies of the Importance and Frequency Questionnaires  ۱۱۶

List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Gardner’s (1985) Socio-Educational Model of Second Language Acquisition (Gardner, 1985, p.199) 15
Figure 2.2. Components of Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) (Gardner, 1985, 144) 17
Figure 2.3. Tremblay and Gardner’s (1995) Model of L2 Motivation (cited in Dörnyei& Ushioda, 2011, p.48  ۱۹
Figure 2.4. Dörnyei’s (1994) Model of L2 Motivation (Dörnyei, 1994a, p.280) 24
Figure 2.5. Williams and Burden’s (1997) Framework of L2 Motivation (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.54) 26
Figure 2.6. Schematic Representation of the Three Mechanisms Making up the Motivational Task- Processing System (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.96) 28
Figure 2.7. Dörnyei and Ottó’s (1998) Process Model of L2 Motivation (Dörnyei and Ottó, ۱۹۹۸, p.48) 38
Figure 2.8. Gardner’s Conceptualisation of the Integrative Motivation (Gardner, 1986, p.87) 41
Figure 2.9. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (cited in Dörnyei & Usioda, 2011, p. 52) 52
Figure 2.10. The Components of Motivational L2 Teaching Practice (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.108) 58
Figure 2.11. Knight’s (2006) Model of Teacher’s Credibility (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.108) 61

 
 
List of Abbreviations
TEFL: Teaching English as a Foreign Language
ESL: English as a Second Language
EFL: English as a Foreign Language
SL: Second Language
FL: Foreign Language
L2: Second Language
SDT: Self-Determination Theory
AMTB: Attitude/Motivation Test Battery
ARCS: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction
CET: Cognitive Evaluation Theory
ESOL: English for Speakers of Other Languages
MOLT: Motivation Orientation of Language Teaching
COLT: Communication Orientation of Language Teaching
LSP: Language for Specific Purposes
NO: Number
M: Mean
SD: Standard Deviation
Diff: Difference
Corr.: Correlation
Sig.: Significance

CHAPTER ONE- INTRODUCTION

 

۱.۱.  Overview

In the field of second or foreign language (L2) teaching and learning, motivation is a significant factor that leads to the language learners’ success or failure. Motivation is the most used concept for explaining the failure or success of a learner. Dörnyei (1998) claimed that motivation is a key to learning. It is an inner source, desire, emotion, reason, need, impulse or purpose that moves a person to a particular action. Motivation has been regarded as one of the main factors that influence the speed and amount of success of foreign language learners. This issue seems to be highly related to the educational context of Iran where it is seen that many Iranian learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) fail to reach at least an average level of proficiency in English. As Dörnyei (2001b) claims, motivation is not a concrete concept; it is an abstract and hypothetical concept that is used to explain why people think and behave in certain situations as they do.
Students’ lack of motivation in language leaning contexts is a major problem for language teachers. According to Dörnyei (as cited in Marie-Jose´ Guilloteaux, 2013), a lot of researchers have tried to help teachers find ways of motivating language learners. In spite of the studies which have been done in this regard, the cultural and ethno-linguistic differences in various contexts were one of the important motives of doing this research.
Accordingly, the aim of this research is to evaluate (a) the extent to which a list of motivational strategies derived from Western educational contexts

 are perceived as relevant by Iranian EFL teachers and (b) the cross-cultural validity of those motivational strategies. To this effect, the present study builds on Dörnyei and Csizér ’s (1998) initial investigation in Hungary and on its modified replication conducted in Taiwan(Cheng and Dörnyei, 2007) and strives to find out how the same concept functions in Iran.

۱.۲.  Statement of the Problem

Regarding the complex nature of motivation and its remarkable influence in second and foreign (L2) language learning, there are a growing number of studies focusing on motivation and motivational strategies in language teaching and learning settings. Dörnyei (as cited in Marie-Jose´ Guilloteaux, 2013) believes that until the early 1990s, most of the researchers studied motivation from a social psychological perspective. Much of the research in this period has been initiated and inspired by two Canadian psychologists, Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert, who, together with their colleagues and students, grounded motivation research in a social psychological framework. Gardner and his associates also established scientific research procedures and introduced standardized assessment techniques and instruments, thus setting high research standards and bringing L2 motivation

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 research to development (Ellis, 2008). Although Gardner’s motivation construct did not go unchallenged over the years, it was not until the early 1990s that a marked shift in thought appeared in papers on L2 motivation as researchers tried to reopen the research agenda in order to shed new light on the subject. The main problem with Gardner’s social psychological approach appeared to be, ironically, that it was too influential. While acknowledging unanimously the fundamental importance of the Gardnerian social psychological model, researchers were also calling for a more pragmatic, education-centered approach to motivation research, which would be consistent with the perceptions of practicing teachers and which would also be in line with the current results of mainstream educational psychological research. It must be noted that Gardner’s motivation theory does include an educational dimension and that the motivation test he and his associates developed, the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB), contains several items focusing on the learner’s evaluation of the classroom learning situation. However, the main emphasis in Gardner’s model and the way it has been typically understood is on general motivational components grounded in the social milieu rather than in the foreign language classroom. For example, the AMTB contains a section in which students’ attitudes toward the language teacher and the course are tested. This may be appropriate for measurement purposes, but the data from this section does not provide a detailed enough description of the classroom dimension to be helpful in generating practical guidelines. Finally, Gardner’s motivation construct does not include details on cognitive aspects of motivation to learn, whereas this is the direction in which educational psychological research on motivation has been moving during the last fifteen years.

Gardner’s social psychological approach has never clearly approached the classroom implications of motivation theory and it did not help language teachers in promoting their teaching practice. However around the 1990s, second and foreign language motivation research has seen an explosion of interest and the researchers have studied motivation from a more education-based perspective. In this period the authors’ attention were shifted to cognitive-situated view of motivation and situation-specific factors like learning and teaching situation were given more attention (Ellis, 2008). Authors like Dörnyei (2001a) gave prominence to more process-oriented view of motivation with an emphasis on dynamic nature of motivation and its temporal variation. Recently, some nearly similar studies on motivational strategies have been carried out by some authors like Dörnyei and Csizér ’s (1998) in Hungary, Cheng and Dörnyei (2007) in Taiwan, Hsu (2008) in Taiwan, Kassing (2011) in Indonesia, Gilloteaux and Dörnyei (2010) in South Korea, and Alrabai (2011) in Saudi-Arabia. Thus, the similarities and differences in the use of motivational strategies by English teachers in different educational contexts have been identified. Similar to the

Islamic Azad University Tehran Central Branch Faculty of Foreign Languages A Thesis Submitted to the Department of ...

۴.۷.۲           “War, the absence woman identity”. ۱۱۹
Chapter 5: Conclusion. 121
۵.۱         Summing up. 122
۵.۲         Findings. 126
۵.۲.۱           Research Questions. 127
۵.۳         Works Cited. 131

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Chapter One: Chapter 1: Introduction