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۵.۴ Suggestions for Further Research. 77
References. 79
Appendices: 85
List of Tables
Table 2.1: different type of co-teaching 19
Table 3.1: The contents and titles of the lessons .52
Table 3.2 Teacher’s Actions during Co-Teaching 53
Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics for KET Proficiency Test piloting60
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics for KET Proficiency Test .60
Table 4.3: Reliability of the KET Proficiency Test Piloting .61
Table 4.4: Descriptive Statistics for KET Main Administration for Homogenization.61
Table 4.5: The Results of Normality Check of the Distribution of scores on KET.61
Table 4.6: Independent Sample T-test for Control and Experimental Groups’ KET scores .63
Table 4.7: Descriptive Statistics for the Results of the Pre-test 64
Table 4.8: Results of Normality of Distribution of Scores for vocabulary homogeneity test 64
Table 4.9: Independent Samples T- Test for Pre-test 65
Table 4.10 Group Statistics of the team-teaching and normal class Participants for post test scores .65
Table 4.11 Independent Samples T-Test of the team-teaching and normal class Participants for post-test 67
Table 4.12 Student Responses to Social Validity Questions .68
Table 4.13 Teacher’s Responses to Social Validation Questions 69
List of Figures
Figure 4.1: The Histogram of Scores of KET Main Administration 62
Figure 4.2 Comparing scores obtained from post-test 66
Figure ۴.۳ Student Responses to Social Validation Questions 69
To those who have tried to wipe out unawareness and darkness and finally they died in Anonymity.
CHAPTER I
Background and Purpose
۱.۱ Introduction
Nowadays English is known as the language of the science, everyday communication and most widely used language in the world. Although it is a well-known fact that Mandarin Chinese is the most commonly spoken language on the planet, we should know that “while English does not have the most speakers, it is the official language of more countries than any other language” (Flamiejamie, 2008). English, also, is the language in which the sciences are most often discussed and presented. A study done in 1997 indicated that 95% of scientific publications and submissions, even at that time, were done in English (collegeofenglishmalta.com). Therefore, it seems that learning English is a need for everyone who wants to keep himself updated and in touch with real out world. In learning English, language skills and language components cannot be separated. Language components can complete the language skills. In order to learn English the students should be able to use suitable structures and master grammar and vocabulary. Vocabulary is an important language component for forming words and building English sentences. Harmer also claimed, “Language structures make up the skeleton of language and it is vocabulary that provides the vital organs and the flesh.” (Harmer, 1994 as cited in Baniabdelrahman, 2013) There is no doubt about the importance of vocabulary. “It is necessary in the sense that words are the basic building blocks of the language, the units of meaning from which larger structures such as sentences, paragraphs and whole text are formed” (Read, 2000, p 1). “Without a good working knowledge of words and their meanings, both written and verbal communication will be muddied or poorly understood” (wisegeek.com). Wilkins (1972) believed that, without learning grammar very little can be conveyed and without learning vocabulary, nothing at all can be conveyed. Researchers suggest that early elementary students’ word knowledge is a determinant of reading comprehension both in early elementary school and throughout their schooling (Hansen, 2009). Some research findings also disclose that students who have acquired more vocabulary items, they will be more likely to articulate and communicate the massage. Therefore, as a result their achievement in speaking skills is better than those who are short of vocabulary understanding or have acquired less vocabulary items. Since vocabulary is important in communication, the students should master it. In this regard, Hippner-page also believes that “vocabulary is the key component which guarantees acquiring a second language and becoming a functional and fluent reader and writer of a second language” (۲۰۰۰, p. 7).
Baumann and Kameenui (1991) believed that we need to have a good vocabulary size to speak and write naturally and effectively. Students’ word knowledge is also linked strongly to their academic success (As cited in Baker, Simmons, & Kameenui, 2007). Moreover it is believed that “perhaps the greatest tools we can give students for succeeding, not only in their education but more generally in life, is a large, rich vocabulary and the skills for using those words” (Pikulski & Templeton, 2004). If we are not sure that Knowledge of this vocabulary will guarantee success, it will be clear that lack of knowledge of vocabulary can ensure failure (Biemiller, 1999 as cited in Jobrack, 2010).
Some researchers (Harley, 1996; Yoshii, and Flaitz, 2002) point to vocabulary learning as a vital part of each student’s life, while other researchers though accept the importance of vocabulary acquisition in language proficiency and academic achievement; their ideas about how vocabulary should be learned have varied widely. (Ghabanchi & Anbarestani, 2008) Unfortunately, learning vocabulary is not easy for students and most of students believe memorizing and learning vocabulary is a difficult, boring, and tedious task. Moreover, what is hard to learn, is easy to forget. So finding ways to increase students’ vocabulary growth throughout the school years must become a major educational priority.
Everyone remembers some words better than others, because of the nature of the words, the circumstances they are learnt under, and the methods of teaching (Ur, 1996). The attention drawn to the important role of vocabulary unveils the importance of vocabulary and the most effective ways to teach vocabulary. Here the teacher plays the most important role in creating the learning context and choosing methods used in the classroom. Especially in EFL contexts in which there is a little chance for the students to encounter English language out of the classroom. In addition, Hedge believes that “Although the teacher’s ultimate role may be to build independence in students by teaching them good strategies for vocabulary learning, s/he will frequently need to explain new words” (۲۰۰۸, p. 112). Books and materials developers provide teachers with different ways of presenting new words to the students such as using synonyms, antonyms, translation, minimal pairs, description, illustration, using context, association of ideas, examples, and many other ways, which usually demand qualified and knowledgeable teachers to put the most proper in practice. It was claimed that learners need to be given explicit instruction of vocabulary strategy in order to facilitate their awareness of vocabulary learning strategies that they can use to learn their own outside the classroom (Atay & Ozbulgan, 2007 as cited in Chen & Hsiao, 2009). Moreover, there is no doubt that “the teacher’s role in vocabulary development is critical” (Yopp, Yopp, & Bishop, 2010).
As mentioned before, there are different techniques and strategies by which the teachers can teach a new vocabulary; but most of them are teacher-dependent and their practicality or impracticality is a function of teachers’ performance. Since different teachers have different abilities, capabilities, resources, personalities and characteristics teaching vocabularies by two or more teachers (known as co-teaching) sharing their knowledge and competence may be efficient and helpful in teaching vocabularies. Teaming can bring out the creative side of teachers. Woodrow Wilson once said, “I not only use all of the brains I have, but all I can borrow” (۲۸th president of US, 1856 – 1924). His acknowledged reliance on others may fit our co-teaching context as well. This also shows the fact that “A community of peers is important not only in terms of support, but also as a crucial source of generating ideas and criticism” (Sykes, 1996, as cited in Jang, 2006).
The very binging point of co-teaching was in 1975, in which Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. This act stated that free and appropriate public education (FAPE) must be provided for all children (Right, 2010). After that, a very important project (No-Child Left behind) in USA was applied in which they tried to provide a better teaching context for students with disabilities (either physical or mental) and facilitate their learning by using two teachers in the classroom. In those classes, they used a pull out model in which these types of students; were pulled out by the second teacher and there they were taught individually and privately. A similar approach was used in classes in which most of the students were emigrants whose native language was something rather than English. In these classes one of the teachers was mainstream teacher (e.g. math, geology) and the second teacher was an English teacher who tried to eliminate the speaking and listening problems of the students. The setting of the classroom and the role of teachers in those classes shaped different models of co-teaching.
Co-teaching has many benefits for both teachers and students; it can reduce the stigma often associated with being identified as having a disability. It creates a stronger system of support for effective instruction among the adults responsible for educating students (Friend, 2008 as cited in Mulgrew & Gentile, 2010). It also develops respect for differences, teamwork skills, and an appreciation for diversity(flexibility), it also provides peer models, empathetic skills, affirmation of individuality; beside that co-teaching enhances instructional knowledge base, increases ways of creatively addressing challenges, foster better peer relationship among students in the classroom and promotes a more rigorous curriculum, teachers will learn from each other’s expertise and expand the scope of their teaching capacity(Rosario, Coles, Redmon, & Strawbridge, 2010; Walther-Thomas, 1997; Leavitt, 2006; Nickelson, 2010)
Cook and Friend (1996) described five forms of variations in co-teaching:
(۱) One teaching/one assisting: a technique in which one teacher takes an instructional lead while the other assists students when necessary.
(۲) Station teaching: dividing the class content and room arrangement, with each teacher working on a specified part of the curriculum and classroom, so that students rotate from one station to the other.
(۴) Alternative teaching: organizing a classroom into one large group and one small group, where one teacher is able to provide main instruction, the other to review a smaller group of students; and
(۵) Team teaching: teachers take turns in leading discussions or both playing roles in demonstrations.
Among mentioned diversities of co-teaching, team-teaching has received special attention and if we go through the history of co-teaching this approach has been applied more (e.g. teaching ESP), which may be because of its advantages over the other approaches. Despite the potential for problems to arise through a lack of collaboration and cohesiveness within a team, there are potential pedagogical advantages for those willing to adopt this form of teaching. Historically, team teaching has been seen as a practice suited for gaining better control of large groups of students (Ivins, 1964 as cited in Wang, 2010). When team teaching is organized and carried out effectively, students, parents and school faculty feel positive effects. Research shows that students taught using a team teaching approach have higher levels of achievement. Additionally, schools that employ team teaching have
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teachers who are more satisfied with their job, resulting in an improved work climate (Flynn , 2010). Leavitt believes that “team-teaching boasts many pedagogical and intellectual advantages: it can help create a dynamic and interactive learning environment, provide instructors with a useful way of modeling thinking within or across disciplines, and inspire new research ideas and intellectual partnerships among faculty”. (۲۰۰۶, p.10)
On the other hand, team teaching gives teachers the opportunity “to teach in a different way, and to learn in a different way” (Leavitt, 2006, p. 16). Poor teachers can also be observed, critiqued, and improved by the other team members in a nonthreatening, supportive context (stateuniversity.com).Team-teaching also allows teachers to respond effectively to different needs of their students, lower the teacher-student ratio, and empower teachers with a professional expertise that meets their students need. Team-teaching also aims to facilitate students’ understanding of concepts from a variety of viewpoints (Hanusch , Obijiofor, & Volcic, 2009).
In team teaching classes, students can develop critical-thinking skills by synthesizing multiple perspectives and relating the information to a larger conceptual framework (Davis, 1995 as cited in Yanamandram & Noble, 2006). Students’ experience also benefits from team-taught course structures. For example, Wilson and Martin (1998) found that students who participated in team-taught classes reported improved teacher-student relationships.
۱.۲ Statement of the Problem
During last decades of English teaching, vocabulary has received little attention. Beside “grammar has always been at the center of attention in teaching English but vocabulary received little attention and mostly has been neglected in the literature of English language teaching and learning despite the fact that errors of vocabulary are potentially more misleading than those of grammar” (Hedge, 2000, p. 111). Nowadays the effect of vocabulary knowledge on the other areas of language learning has made it to gain its importance (e.g. “appears that teaching of lexis has been acknowledged or re-acknowledged to be important for improving students’ reading comprehension” ( Hyde, 2002, p. 7))
To be a fluent and accurate speaker of English language you need to know a body of English words and vocabularies. According to statistics, “An Average educated speaker needs to know about 17,000 words” (Goulden, Nation, & Read 1990, as cited in Hedge, 2000, p. 111). Researchers have found that
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any native speakers even though they have access to different types of materials written in the English language. Therefore, the need for reading and extracting information from these texts seems to be vital. As noted by Sofiyatun (2009), “The success of learning any subject matter depends on the competence of reading comprehension” (P.2). By reading books, magazines, newspapers, and bulletins, people can gain a lot of information. Therefore, it can be assumed that the success of obtaining information depends on the reading itself.One common belief among first language (L1) researchers is that most of words acquired by children during the process of first language acquisition are acquired incidentally in that words are learned when the child’s attention is focused on an on-going task (e.g., talking to his/her parents or reading or listening to a story) rather than specific lexical items. Specifically, the most common task through which children expand their vocabulary knowledge is reading comprehension (Anderson et al., 1988; Nagy, 1988). For instance, Anderson et al. (1988) claim that, during primary and secondary school years, when children acquire literacy knowledge, they usually read about one million words per year and therefore it would be probable that reading activities are a more important source of L1 vocabulary acquisition than other language skills, particularly the listening skill.
Up to the 1980s, grammar was the central study area for second language acquisition research. However, in the last three decades, vocabulary has become a major focus of linguistic works or, to quote Meara (1995), “has mushroomed enormously” (p.11), even being at the heart of theories such as
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the Lexical Learning Hypothesis. According to Malvern et al. (2008), “vocabulary knowledge is indispensable to acquire grammar” (p.270).
The heightened interest in L2 vocabulary over the last two or three decades has brought with it a number of suggestions of how vocabulary knowledge should be modeled. It has long been accepted that vocabulary knowledge is instrumental in reading comprehension (Alderson, 2000; Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Mezynski, 1983; Read, 2000).Indeed, although sometimes L2 learners need only partial knowledge of a word in comprehension, more lexical knowledge is obviously desirable in many situations. Over the years, lexical researchers have developed various criteria for understanding what is involved in knowing a word. An early definition (Cronbach, 1942) divided vocabulary knowledge in to two main categories: knowledge of word meaning (generalization, breadth of meaning, and precision of meaning) and levels of accessibility to this knowledge (availability and application).The obvious weakness in this definition is the lack of a place for other aspects of lexical knowledge, such as spelling, pronunciation, morpho syntactic properties, and collocation. Later on, Richards (1976) offered the following assumptions concerning what is involved in knowing a word: frequency, register, syntax, derivation, association, semantic features, and polysemy. These assumptions of lexical knowledge are more inclusive than Cronbach’s framework, because Richards not only incorporated morphological and syntactic properties into the concept but also considered such aspects as word frequency and register characteristics. However, pronunciation, spelling, and collocation
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Chapter Three. 21
Methodology. 21
۳.۱. Introduction. 21
۳.۲. Participants and Setting. 21
۳.۳. Instrumentation. 21
۳.۴. Procedure. 23
۳.۵. Study Design. 24
Chapter Four. 25
Data analysis, Discussions and Results. 25
۴.۱. Introduction. 25
۴.۲. Data analysis and investigation of research questions. 25
۴.۲.۱. Descriptive Statistics. 25
۴.۲.۲ Inferential statistics. 29
۴.۳. Discussion. 34
Chapter Five. 36
Conclusion. 36
۵.۱. Introduction. 36
۵.۲. Conclusion. 36
۵.۳. Pedagogical Implications. 38
۵.۴. Suggestions for Further Research. 38
References. 39
Appendix (2): Accuracy measures. 48
Appendix (3): Fluency measures. 49
Appendix (4): Homogeneity Test and Pretest 50
Appendix (5): posttest 51
Abstract
The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of elicitation feedback on speaking accuracy and fluency. To fulfill the purpose of the study, 60 female intermediate learners at Marefat Language Institute were chosen by means of administering a proficiency test preliminary English test (PET). They were randomly divided into two homogeneous groups, one as the experimental group and the other as the control one. These learners were pretested through a structured interview to check their current speaking accuracy and fluency level.
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Key words: elicitation feedback, accuracy, fluency
Chapter One
Introduction
۱.۱. Background of Purpose
English is an international language and the desire for learning English for communication is increasing. So, many language learners seemingly attend language classes to improve their speaking ability. According to Folse (2006), the ability to speak a language is synonymous with knowing that language for most people, since speech is the most basic means of human communication. Realizing the high importance of this skill in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) programs is very important to developing ways of giving feedback that are in line with various L2 acquisition theories in order to reduce students` errors in their speaking and scientifically scrutinizing the effects of them.
Over the years, the role of corrective feedback (CF) in EFL or English as a Second Language (ESL) classrooms has been an argumentative issue. Feedback is an important part in teaching and learning, so it has been considered in both second language theories and language pedagogy. It is a challenge for language teachers to ensure that learners develop accuracy in their speaking as well as fluency. Feedback has a corrective function so giving more attention to it can improve the learners` performance through learning process. Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing,
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Figure 4.3 Histogram of the Participants’ Scores in EPI 52
Figure 4.4 Histogram of the E Scores of the Participants in EPI 53
Figure 4.5 Histogram of the Writing Posttest Scores Obtained by the Introvert Group ۵۵
Figure 4.6 Histogram of the Writing Posttest Scores Obtained by the Extrovert Group ۵۵
C H A P T E R I
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
۱.۱ Introduction
Living in 21 century and being a part of the global village, writing in English is a fundamental skill. Writing well is a necessity for academic success and a basic requirement for communication. ” It is unique and stands out of the four skills of language because its nature allows for examination and reexamination, debate and decision making, choice and revision and cognitive activities which require higher order thinking skills of communicator” (Hobson& Schafermeyer, 1994, p.51 ).
By the sake of writing, learners can participate in a productive practice which sometimes can motivates them to learn new language elements and structures during constant process of reviewing and drafting. Moreover, according to Celce-Murcia (1991), it fosters higher order cognitive activities and mental processing, which is an important component of learning. In addition, it invites feedback, either overt or covert, based on which students make adjustments in their learned language system.
Writing has always been regarded as an important part of academic life which serves different functions and purposes. But writing has always been a difficult skill (Graham, Harris & Manson, 2005) so teachers need some ways to encourage learners and motivate them to write. One way for motivating learners to write is use of cooperative learning techniques. Humans are social and cooperation has been used in all aspects of our lives. So, cooperative learning groups in learning situations can be an acceptable teaching approach. (Johnson & Johnson, 1994; Kagan, 1990; Slavin, 1995).
According to Deutch (1999) Kurt Lewin field theory and social interdependence have great roles in cooperative learning. Social interdependence started in early 1900s. Kurt Koffka who was one of the major figures of Gestalt psychology suggested that interdependence is different in dynamic wholes. “For interdependence to exist there must be more than one person or entity involved, and the persons or entities must have impact on each other in that a change in the state of one causes a change in the state of the others. It may be concluded that it is the drive for goal accomplishment that
motivates cooperative and competitive behavior.” (Sharan, 2010, p.113)
In the late 1940s, one of Lewin’s graduate students, Morton Deutsch, extended Lewin’s reasoning about social interdependence and formulated a theory of cooperation and competition. Deutsch’s basic premise was that the type of interdependence structured in a situation determines how individuals interact with each other which, in turn, largely determine outcomes. “Positive interdependence tends to result in promotive interaction; negative interdependence tends to result in oppositional interaction, and no interdependence results in an absence of interaction.”(Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. 2008, p.121)Cooperative writing is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. In this way students will interact with each other and the teacher during the instructional session. As Johnson & Johnson (2008) stated within cooperative situations, individuals seek outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial to all other group members.
“The basic elements are Positive interdependence, Promotive interaction, Interpersonal and small group skills, Group processing, and individual and group accountability which are essential for effective group learning, achievement, and higher-order social, personal and cognitive skills (e.g., problem
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solving, reasoning, decision-making, planning, organizing, and reflecting).” (Johnson, D.W & Johnson R.T. 2005, pp.285-360)
According to Sharan, Y. (2010) the benefits of cooperative learning are a better mutual relationship, respect, and higher communication. It also has advantages in thinking strategies. Competitive learners have difficulty in obtaining a balance between being competitive and interacting with others. Their emotional interaction and trust are two other concerns.Personality types are distinguished from personality traits, which come in different levels or degrees. For example, according to type theories, there are two types of people, introverts and extroverts.), Myers and Briggs (1995 as cited in Bernsterin, Penner, Clarke, Stewart, and Roy 2008) introversion and extroversion are part of a continuous dimension, with many people in the middle.
Although extroversion maybe considered as socially desirable, it is not always an advantage. Conversely, while introversion maybe perceived as less socially desirable, it is strongly associated with positive traits such as intelligence and giftedness for many years, researchers have found that introverts tend to be more successful in academic environments, which extroverts may find boring. Personality traits, along with other factors such as skill and interest, are used to predict future academic and career performance.”(Ryckman 2004, p.61).
۲.۱ Statement of the Problem
Many EFL teachers complain and wonder why their students do not show considerable improvement in their writings every time they check the students’ writings. This shortcoming on the part of a student’s maybe partly due to personality traits and partly due to atmosphere of the class which is more competitive and teacher-centered rather than cooperative and learner-centered.
Surely, these teachers are not aware of benefits of cooperative writing. Moreover, they may not be aware that learning will not occur at all until students are motivated and psychologically and affectively ready to learn.
Furthermore, teachers probably expect all the students to the inputs in an identical way despite their totally different personalities. Put in other words, these teachers ignore the fact that each student is totally different human being with his/her unique cognitive style and personality.
According to Hobson & Schafermeyer (1994) writing is a productive activity that involves learners in an active participation and activates their mental processing by its nature of revision, examination and decision making which require higher order of thinking skills.
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۴.۲.۲.۱. Post-Test Results ۷۱
۴.۲.۲.۲. Post-Test Descriptive Statistics ۷۱
۴.۳. Testing the Null Hypotheses ۷۴
۴.۴. Discussion ۷۵
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL ۸۲
IMPLICATIONS
۵.۱. Introduction ۸۳
۵.۲. Summary of the Findings ۸۳
۵.۳. Pedagogical Implications ۸۵
۵.۳.۱. Implication for EFL Teachers ۸۵
۵.۳.۲. Implication for EFL Syllabus Designers ۸۶
۵.۴. Suggestions for Further Research ۸۷
REFERENCES ۸۹
APPENDICES ۹۷
Appendix A: Preliminary English Test (PET) ۹۸
Appendix B: Appendix B: Writing Rating Scale ۱۲۰
Appendix C: Attitude and Motivation Test Battery ۱۲۲
by Gardner, 1985 (AMTB)
Appendix D: Sample Lesson ۱۲۶
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics of the PET Pilot Administration ۵۸
Table 4.2 Reliability Estimates of the PET before and after Removing ۵۹
Malfunctioning Items
Table 4.3 Reliability of the PET in First Homogenization ۶۰
Table 4.4 Descriptive Statistics of the Two Ratings of PET Writing ۶۰
Section (First Homogenization)
Table 4.5 Correlation between the Two Ratings of the PET ۶۱
Writing Tasks (First Homogenization)
Table 4.6: Descriptive Statistics of Total PET (First Homogenization) ۶۲
Table 4.7 Reliability of the PET (Second Homogenization) ۶۲
Table 4.8 Descriptive Statistics of the Two Ratings of PET Writing ۶۳
Section (First Second Homogenization)
Table 4.9 Correlation between the Two Ratings of the PET Writing ۶۴
Tasks (Second Homogenization)
Table 4.10 Descriptive Statistics of Total PET (Second Homogenization) ۶۴
Table 4.11 Descriptive Statistics of the Total PET Scores of the Two ۶۵
Experimental Groups
Table 4.12: Independent Samples Test on the Total PET at the Onset ۶۶
Table 4.13: T-test for both experimental groups ۶۷
Table 4.14: Paired Samples Test for the experimental group 1 ۶۸
Table 4.15: Paired Samples Test for the experimental group 2 ۶۹
Table 4.16: Independent Samples Test Experimental 1 ۷۰
and Experimental 2 (Pretest)
Table 4.17: Descriptive Statistics of the motivation Post-test ۷۲
Table 4.18: Independent Samples Test Experimental 1 ۷۴
and Experimental 2(Posttest)
Figure 4.1: Scatter Plot of Descriptive Statistics of the motivation Post-test
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
۱.۱ Introduction
Scholars in the field of teaching and learning English as a foreign or second language have long been concerned with finding ways to increase the learners’ motivation and removing the barriers they bring with themselves into the educational environment. Incorporating different instructions and techniques into the classroom adds variety as well as opportunities for a lot of language production. Some believe that these techniques can be used as integral part of the class. Using storytelling and role playing in EFL classes have gained special attention in recent years. If the teacher believes that the activity will work and the necessary support is provided, it can be very successful. However, if the teacher is not convinced about the validity of using role-play, the activity “will fall flat on its face just as you expected it to” (Ladousse, 1987, p.7). A widely spread and one of the best communicative activities as well as cooperative learning is a role play which trains the students in the classroom to cope with unpredictable real-life situations in an English speaking environment. Ladousse (1987) points out the special reasons for using role play in the lessons. It puts students in situations in which they are required to use and develop language necessary in social relationships and helps them to build up their social skills. Using role play is useful especially while teaching shy students who have difficulty participating in conversations about themselves. Through this activity they are put into various roles and no longer feel that their own personality is implicated. Role play is an essential communicative technique which develops fluency, promotes interaction in the classroom and increases motivation.
However, storytelling has a strong effect on learners’ perception and comprehension. Baker and Greene (1977) assert “storytelling increases the listeners’ awareness-sense of wonder, of mystery, of reverence for life” (p.17).
Louise Phillips (2000), in her research about storytelling mentioned the importance and effect of storytelling: There is enough research that has found valuable learning potential in storytelling experiences for children. This research indicates that storytelling “(a)enhances children’s imagination” (Raines and Isbell, 1994;pp. 264-265); “(b) supports and improves children’s social lives” (Britsch, 1992; p. 80); “(c) develops their cognitive skills such as
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‘deferred imitation’, speculation and knowledge”(Britsch, 1992; p.23; Nicolopoulou, Scales and Weintramb, 1994; p. 103; Mallan, 1991;p. 12); “(d) contributes significantly to all aspects of language development” (Cooper, Collins and Saxby, 1992; Mallan, 1991); and “(e) is an effective bridge to early literacy” (Bruner, 1986; Rosen, 1988 as cited in Miller and Mehler, 1994).
The power and value of reading to children is indisputable (Trealease, 1985; Hall, 1992; Snow, 1992 as cited in Tallant, 1992). In addition to great pleasure, it offers for children both story structure and makes them ready to become independent reader (Tallant, 1992).It should be noted that role playing activities help the students to experience the “real-world” situations (Oberle, 2004, p 199). Van Ments (1983) mentioned three main advantages of role-playing activities: (a) they are positive and safe in dealing with attitudes and feelings, (b) they provide a safe venue for expressing personal and sometimes unpopular attitudes and opinions, and (c) “role-playing is highly motivating as the majority of students enjoy these types of activities and become more inspired learners (as Cited in Graves, 2008).
On the other hand, motivation is considered as a key feature in the success of language learning. In fact, Dörnyei (2000) puts that “motivation provides the primary impetus to embark upon learning, and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process” (p.425). With regard to the importance of comparison of digital and traditional role-play among Iranian EFL Learners’ proficiency in motivation, most scholars have written paper about the importance of role-playing in motivation.
- Statement of the Problem
Teaching is a process in which teachers have to consider many different aspects if they want to make this process successful such as students level, background, social context, interests, purposes, personality, age, learning styles, abilities, and personality characteristics. About those factors and others, Lightbown and Spada (1997, p. 33) believe: “in addition to personality characteristics, other factors generally considered to be relevant to language learning are intelligence, aptitude, motivation, and attitudes.”
According to AbuêndiaPadilha (1999), it is really important for teachers to promote learner’s confidence by focusing on some issues and topics which make them interested. De Almeida believes that “in this way, learners will be able to continue with their learning process in a meaningful way. Not only can it provide a good language environment, but also motivation.” (۲۰۱۱, p.4)