دانشگاه تبریز پایان نامه کارشناسی ارشد در رشته بیوتکنولوژی کشاورزی عنوان: تجزیه پروتئوم ریشه گندم تحت تنش ...
۳-۵-۲- مهار ROS و سم زدایی ۷۳
۳-۵-۳- ترجمه پروتئین، پردازش و تخریب ۷۶
۳-۵-۴- پروتئینهای مرتبط با دیواره سلولی ۷۸
۳-۵-۵- پروتئینهای مرتبط با متابولیسم اسیدهای آمینه و هورمونها ۸۰
۳-۵-۶- شبکه انتقال سیگنال درگیر در پاسخ به تنش کلرید سدیم. ۸۳
۳-۵-۷- اسکلت سلولی ۸۴
۳-۵-۸- پروتئینهای مرتبط با رونویسی ۸۵
۳-۵-۹- پروتئینهای مرتبط با همبستگی سطح mRNA و پروتئینهای مربوطه. ۸۶
منابع
منابع. ۸
چکیده:
گندم (Triticum aestivum L.) یکی از قدیمیترین و اولین گیاهان زراعی است که به عنوان ماده اولیه تهیه نان در تغذیه بشر نقش اساسی ایفا کرده است. با توجه به
رشد جمعیت و نیاز روز افزون به محصولات کشاورزی به ویژه گندم میبایست تولید گندم را در کشور افزایش داد. به علت محدود بودن سطح زمینهای قابل کشت، افزایش تولید گندم مستلزم افزایش عملکرد در واحد سطح است. تنشهای محیطی از قبیل خشکی، شوری و سرما نقش مهمی بر روی عملکرد گیاهان زراعی و بقای آنها دارند. تنش شوری یکی از مهمترین تنشهای غیرزیستی است که اثر نامطلوبی بر روی کمیت و کیفیت محصولات زراعی دارد، به طوری که ۲۰ درصد از زمینهای زراعی آبی در جهان متاثر از تنش شوری هستند. بنابراین ارزیابی و بررسی سازوکار مولکولی مقاومت و حساسیت به تنش کلرید سدیم در ارقام مختلف گندم از اهمیت ویژهای در این راستا برخوردار است. به این منظور آزمایشی بصورت تکرار دار در سال ۱۳۹۱ درون اتاقک رشد تحت شرایط کنترل شده در دانشکده کشاورزی دانشگاه تبریز اجرا گردید. در این آزمایش از دو رقم آرتا (حساس) و بم (مقاوم) در دو سطح تنش ۲۵۰ میلیمولار و فاقد تنش بر پایه طرح کاملا تصادفی در سه تکرار استفاده گردید. زمان اعمال تنش، مرحله دو برگی گیاهان بود. پس از ظهور علائم تنش، اقدام به نمونه برداری و بررسی صفات مورفولوژیک از قبیل طول ریشه، حجم ریشه، وزن تر، وزن خشک، تعداد ریشه و میزان پرولین ریشه گردید. تیمار ارقام گندم با نمک کلرید سدیم به مدت یک هفته تغییر معنی داری از نظر آماری در صفات مرتبط با ریشه شامل طول، وزنتر و تعداد ریشه ایجاد ننمود. به نظر میرسد مدت زمان کوتاه مجاورت گیاهان با تنش و بالا بودن ضریب تغییرات از دلایل عمده چنین پاسخی باشند. صفات وزن خشک و تعداد ریشه به ترتیب در سطح احتمال پنج و یک درصد معنیدار شدند. تنش کلرید سدیم موجب افزایش میزان پرولین در هر دو رقم حساس و متحمل گردید؛ اگرچه میزان افزایش پرولین در رقم حساس به مراتب بیشتر از رقم متحمل بود. بررسی پروتئوم ریشه گندم در رقم حساس با روش الکتروفورز دو بعدی منجر به
مطلب دیگر :
نگاهی بر قابلیت های جدید اپلیکیشن کتاب خوان فیدیبو
شناسایی تعداد ۲۱ لکه پروتئینی با تغییرات بیان معنی دار شد که شش لکه پروتئینی افزایش بیان و ۱۵ لکه پروتئینی کاهش بیان نشان دادند. در رقم متحمل تغییرات بیان ۴۹ لکه پروتئینی معنی دار گردید که از بین آنها ۱۴ لکه پروتئینی افزایش بیان و ۳۵ لکه پروتئینی کاهش بیان نشان دادند. پروتئینهای یافت شده بر اساس عملکرد بیولوژیکی در گروههای مهمی مانند پروتئینهای دخیل در متابولیسم انرژی، مهار کننده های ROSها و سم زدایی، ترجمه پروتئین، پردازش و تخریب، پروتئینهای مرتبط با دیواره سلولی، پروتئینهای مرتبط با متابولیسم اسیدهای آمینه و هورمونها، شبکه انتقال سیگنال درگیر در پاسخ به تنش کلرید سدیم، اسکلت سلولی، پروتئینهای مرتبط با رونویسی، پروتئینهای مرتبط با همبستگی سطح mRNA و پروتئین تقسیم شدند.
مقدمهگندم (Triticum aestivum L.) یکی از گیاهان زراعی مهم است که از سالیان بسیار دور، قبل از آن که بشر به موارد مصرف سایر گیاهان پی ببرد، از آن به عنوان مهمترین منبع غذایی استفاده میکرد. این گیاه از نظر تولید و سطح زیر کشت مهمترین محصول کشاورزی ایران است (خدابنده، ۱۳۸۲). با توجه به رشد جمعیت و نیاز روز افزون به محصولات کشاورزی به ویژه گندم میبایست تولید گندم را در کشور افزایش داد. .
به علت محدود بودن سطح زمینهای قابل کشت، افزایش تولید گندم مستلزم افزایش عملکرد در واحد سطح است. افزایش عملکرد در واحد سطح به دو روش، یکی اعمال روشهای زراعی پیشرفته و دیگری تولید ارقام مناسب از نظر کیفیت و کمیت عملکرد، مقاومت به بیماریها و تحمل تنشهای محیطی قابل حصول است (اهدایی، ۱۳۸۸).
تنش در گیاه به مفهوم انحراف در فیزیولوژی، نمو و عملکرد طبیعی آن است که اغلب مضر بوده و آسیبهای برگشت ناپذیری به سیستم گیاهی وارد مینماید. بسیاری از موجودات زنده مثل ویروسهای بیماریزای گیاهی، باکتریها، قارچها، نماتدها، حشرات و برخی گیاهان گلدار، انگل گیاهان هستند؛ که از آنها به عنوان ” تنشهای زیستی” یاد میشود. در مقابل، “تنشهای غیرزیستی” توسط اشیا یا مواد و یا شرایط غیرزنده به گیاهان تحمیل میشوند. شوری، دمای محیط، رطوبت نسبی، تابش خورشید، مواد مغذی خاک و سایر ویژگیهای فیزیکوشیمیایی خاک موجب تنشهای غیرزیستی در گیاه میشوند (ناگاراجان، ۲۰۱۰). تنشهای محیطی از قبیل خشکی، شوری و سرما نقش مهمی بر روی عملکرد گیاهان زراعی و بقای آنها دارند (لاتینی و همکاران، ۲۰۰۷). تنش شوری یکی از مهمترین تنشهای غیرزیستی میباشد که اثر نامطلوبی بر روی کمیت و کیفیت محصولات زراعی دارد، به طوری که ۲۰ درصد از زمینهای زراعی آبی در جهان متاثر از تنش شوری هستند (ژائو و همکاران، ۲۰۰۷). به دلیل قرارگیری ایران در منطقه آب و هوایی خشک و نیمه خشک، نزدیک به ۵۰ درصد سطح زیر کشت محصولات کشاورزی، به درجات مختلف با مشکل شوری و قلیایی بودن مواجه میباشد (میر محمدی میبدی و قره یاضی، ۱۳۸۱).
با پیشرفت سریع در تکنیکهای استخراج ، تفکیک و شناسایی پروتئین، تکنولوژی پروتئومیک یک نقش کلیدی را در توسعهی مجموعه پروتئینهای مرتبط با فعالیت زیستی بازی می کند (وانگ و همکاران، ۲۰۱۱). پروتئومیک یک روش مبتنی بر تکنیک الکتروفورز دوبعدی[۱] است. هر پروتئین یک نقطۀ ایزوالکتریک دارد که در آن بار مثبت و منفی پروتیئن با هم برابر
A Thesis Proposal Submitted to the English Department at Islamic Azad University in Partial Fulfillment of the ...
The present empirical research reports on the findings of a study that investigated the effects of Project Work on Language proficiency and autonomy level of Iranian Intermediate Learners in an EFL setting. The method of teaching and learning English language through Project works is a contrast to the current teaching of English in Iranian high schools. The researcher after implementing FCE exam as the pre-test to homogenize 250 female students of two high schools in district 4 Mashhad, chose 50 students as the participants of the study. They were divided randomly into two groups of experimental and control groups. Through 12 sessions of instruction in three months’ time students in experimental group went under different project works introduced by the researcher. At the same time the students in the control group were provided with five short stories as their reading comprehension assignments. In order to collect the required data, a Cambridge FCE proficiency test was employed by the researcher as both pre-test and post-test. To check the autonomy level of the participants, a Learner Autonomy Questionnaire developed by Zhang and Li (2004, p. 23), was administered. At the end an interview was performed by the researcher to perceive the students’ ideas about the project work. Regarding the first hypothesis,” Project works do not have any significant effect on Intermediate Iranian EFL learners’ autonomy “, descriptive statistics of the autonomy questionnaire indicated that the mean of the autonomy level of the experimental group (M= 42.80) was higher than that of the control group (M= 26.76), therefor the hypothesis was rejected. The second hypothesis was not completely rejected. The projects applied had enabled the students to develop positive attitudes towards all English skills except for the reading skill. The results of the interview indicated that most students enjoyed doing projects. The study revealed that project works can be an effective way in teaching foreign languages and could create a gradual shift away from the traditional
forms of teaching and learning in an EFL Iranian Intermediate setting.
Keywords: project works, language proficiency, learner autonomy.
Chapter One.
Introduction
۱.۱. Background and purpose
Nowadays English is considered as one of the most important international languages which are widely used throughout the world. It is also the medium of communication, therefore the demand for high proficiency in the use of English has increased in the past decades. Today the world’s
مطلب دیگر :
اندازه گیری هوش هیجانی – سبز اندیشان امروز
economy, culture, education, science and politics are under the influence of globalization and English is the medium through which a lot of communications are carried out. This study focuses on the teaching of English through project works to high school students in Iran.
English language plays an important role not only in education, but also in foreign trade, overseas jobs, and study opportunities abroad. It is taught in all secondary schools in Iran and is given some weight in the university entrance examinations. It is also the language for economic negotiations and political matters throughout the world. Therefore it is a vital tool in the international world and the acceptance and use of English in international education is very demanding.
Kumaravadivelu (2008) in his book Understanding Language Teaching stated that a source of tiresome ambiguity that influences language teaching is the absence of principled way which classifies language teaching methods in a coherent fashion. During 1980s various process-oriented approaches were experimented by several scholars including Comprehension approach (Winitz,1981), Natural approach (Krashen & Terrell, 1983),Proficiency- oriented approach (Omaggio,1986), Communicational approach (Prabhu,1987), Lexical approach(Lewis1993; Willis,1990) and Process approach ( Legutke & Thomas, 1991). However, there are particular instructional procedures that have kept their impact on language teaching among which Project-Based Instruction (PBI) is considered to be fitted with quite effective learning opportunities for teaching languages in various contexts. Project work is usually a group work, for this reason it
CENTRAL TEHRAN BRANCH Faculty of Foreign Languages- Department of English A THESIS SUBMITED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT ...
۳.۵. Design of the Study. 54
۳.۶. Statistical Analysis. 54
CHAPTER IV 55
Results and Discussion. 55
۴.۱. Introduction. 56
۴.۲. Participant Selection. 56
۴.۳. Discussion. 71
CHAPTER V 73
CONCLUSIONS AND PEDAGOGICALIMPLICATIONS. 73
۵.۱. Introduction. 74
۵.۲. Conclusion. 74
۵.۳. Pedagogical Implications. 75
۵.۴ Suggestions for Further Research. 75
References. 77
References. 78
Abstract
This study was conducted to investigate whether critical thinking had any significant effect on translation performance of translations students. To this end, 75 male and female English translation students at the 7th semester at BA level were chosen from Azad University, Shahr-e-Ghods branch. The participants were non-randomly selected on the basis of the scores they obtained on a pre-piloted Preliminarily English Test (PET) and a translation test before conducting the study. The division of the participants to the experimental and control groups was done randomlyBoth experimental and control groups were taught using the same material in translation classes and they received the same amount of instruction .The only difference was some techniques of critical thinking that were taught to the experimental group to be used in their translation. A posttest of translation was given to the participants after the treatment, and the results of the data analyses showed that there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups in terms of their posttest performance
CHAPTER I
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
۱.۱. Introduction
Newmark(1998)asserts: “As a means of communication, translation is used for multilingual notices, for tourist publicity; for official documents such as treaties and contracts; for reports, papers, articles, correspondence, and textbooks to convey information, advice and recommendation for every branch
of knowledge”(P.7). According to Newmark(1998)“translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended in the text”(p.5). In other words “translation consists of transferring the meaning of the source language (SL) into the receptor language” (RL) (Larson, 1984, p.3). A translator faces some difficulties during translation and may not convey the meaning of the SL to RLappropriately.AsNewmark(1988) puts it“when there is no such thing as a law of translation”(p.113), tohelpconvey the meaning from SL to RL in different texts in different languages what should a translator do? Is it possible to find a way to lesson unpredictable difficulties during a translation?
Scriven and Paul ( 1987), indicatethatcritical thinking(CT) is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action.
Facion (2010) also believes that CT includes the following cognitive skills: interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation. So a critical thinker should have especial skills in order to make a good judgment. Critical thinkers observe carefully, rely on evidence, ask right questions, and identify problems based on reasons. These thinkers are opposite to unreflective people who are biased, jump to conclusion and
مطلب دیگر :
قاعده لاضرر/:پایان نامه شروط ناعادلانه قرارداد
delay too long in making a good decision. These definitions of CT indicate the importance of thinking especially in the production of new ideas and problem solving. . On the other hand Paul and Elder (2004) think making an inference is an essential part of comprehension. Writers can’t make all the information explicit in a text. It is relied on reader to make necessary inferences in each case.
Schafersman(1991) believes that children are not born with the power to think critically, nor do they develop this ability naturally beyond survival-level thinking. Critical thinking is a learned ability that must be taught. Most individuals never learn it. Critical thinking cannot be taught reliably to students by peers or by most parents. Trained and knowledgeable instructors are necessary to impart the proper information and skills Regarding the teachability of critical thinking Wright (2002) proposes three main ways for teaching critical thinking in the class, teacher modeling, classroom activities, and teaching the tools of critical thinking.Wright (2002) proposes several ways of organizing for instruction in critical thinking: teach a separate course or unit, infuse critical thinking into what we teach, or we can use a mixed approach.Wright (2002) as well believes that in teaching critical thinking mastering the following concepts is crucial: a) cause and effect b) premise and conclusion c) point of viewd) evidence e) reason f) assumption
-
G) INFERENCE.
Bailin (2002) holds firmly to the idea that becoming proficient at critical thinking involves, among other things, takes the acquisition of certain kinds of knowledge. Knowledge of critical concepts such as ‘premise’, ‘conclusion’, ‘cause and effect’, ‘necessary and sufficient condition’; knowledge of methodological principles; and knowledge of the criteria for critical judgment.
There is not an appropriate and sufficient theory of CT for application in translation and education but as Robinson (2003 as cited in Kelly.2005) mentions, translation is an intelligent activity involving complex processes of conscious and unconscious learning.
According to the above-mentioned forerunners of CT Critical thinking and learning how to think critically may have a crucial role in translation.
۱.۲. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The quality of translation is different from person to person. When a text is given to a number of translators with the same age, social, and educational background to be translated the products are not the same. According to Shahvali (cited in Razmjou 2004), theoretical knowledge and practical skills alone are not
دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد آباده پایان نامه زبان انگلیسی گرایش آموزش زبان انگلیسی رابطه بین ...
۴.۱۱ Results of Independent Samples t-test for Male and Female Performance in the Proficiency Test 64
۴.۱۲ Participants’ English Proficiency in the Anxiety Groups. 65
۴.۱۳ Correlation Between Language Learning Anxiety and English Proficiency. 65
۴.۱۴ Motivation Groups. 67
۴.۱۵ Participants’ Distribution in Motivational Groups. 67
۴.۱۶ Participants’ English Proficiency in the Motivational Groups. 68
۴.۱۷ Correlation Between Motivation and English Proficiency. 69
۴.۱۸ Males’ and Females’ Level of Anxiety. 70
۴.۱۹ Independent Samples t-test for Differences in Males and Females’ Level of Anxiety. 71
۴.۲۰ Distribution of Males and Females in Anxiety Groups. 71
۴.۲۱ Males’ and Females’ Motivation. 72
۴.۲۲ Independent Samples t-test for Differences in Males and Females’ Level of Motivation. 73
۴.۲۳ Distribution of Males and Females in Motivational Groups. 73
۴.۲۴ Correlation Between Males’ Anxiety, Motivation, and English Proficiency ۷۵
۴.۲۵ Correlation Between Females’ Anxiety, Motivation, and English proficiency. 76
ABSTRACT
The present study was an attempt to investigate the degree of anxiety among Iranian intermediate EFL learners and its relation to their motivation. It also explored whether there was any significant relationship between anxiety, motivation and language proficiency for Iranian EFL learners. To this end, a total number of 80 EFL learners (35 males and 45 females) were selected through cluster random sampling from two language classes at Islamic Azad University, Sardasht Branch, Hormozgan Province, Iran as the participants in this study. The instruments used to collect the data from the participants were the Foreign Language Learning Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), Gardner’s (1985) Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) used to measure the participants’ motivation to learn English, and a modified version of a paper-based TOEFL test that was used to measure the participants’ level of English proficiency. The results indicated that the majority of the participants experienced a mid to high level of language learning anxiety. Besides, it was found that the participants with lower levels of the language learning anxiety were more motivated to learn English while those with higher levels of the language learning anxiety were less motivated to learn English. On the other hand, it was noted that the participants with lower levels of the language learning anxiety were more proficient English learners and vice versa. In addition, there was a positive significant relationship between the participants’ motivation and their English proficiency. However, there was no significant difference between the anxiety level of male and female
participants. Similarly, there was no significant difference between the motivation level of male and female participants in this study. Finally, the findings indicated that there was no significant difference between the male and female participants concerning their language learning anxiety, motivation to learn English, and their English proficiency, indicating that gender did not play a determining role in these three variables.
Keywords: Language learning anxiety, Language learning motivation, Language proficiency,EFL Learners
CHAPTER ONE
مطلب دیگر :
INTRODUCTION
۱.۰ INTRODUCTION
The present chapter includes six parts. The first part presents a background to the study. The second part addresses the statement of the problem followed by research questions in the third part. Then, the significance of the study and research questions are presented, respectively. Definitions of key terms are presented at the end of the chapter.
۱.۱ BACKGROUND
It is well established that second/foreign language learning is often associated with affective factors, among which the constructs of anxiety and motivation have been recognized as important predictors of second/foreign language performance. Anxiety is defined as a state of uneasiness and apprehension or fear caused by the anticipation of something threatening (Chastain, 1988).
Many researchers believe language anxiety influences language learning. Whereas facilitating anxiety exerts positive effects on learners’ performance, too much anxiety may cause a poor performance (Scovels, 1991). Some of symptoms of anxiety are shown physically as we may feel our heart beating faster and psychologically as we may feel frightened or panicky. We start to have anxious thoughts about the very real possibility of making a complete fool of ourselves and the consequent loss of face as a consequence of this type of anxiety. Nobody likes to be thought of as a failure.
But the real problem with anxiety is that in order to avoid feelings of discomfort, feeling frightened or a sense of failure, we may choose to avoid situations which have the potential to make us discomfort. But the result of avoidance is the gradual loss of our self-esteem (Horwitz, Horwitz & Cope, 1986). Anxiety has been regarded as one of the most important affective factors that can influence second language acquisition. Much research has been conducted to find the relationship between anxiety and achievement in the learning of different foreign languages. Such research has revealed that anxiety can impede foreign language production and achievement (e.g., Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre& Gardner, 1994). Language anxiety is experienced by learners of both foreign and second language and causes potential problems as it can interfere with the acquisition, retention, and production of the new language
Faculty of Foreign Languages Thesis Submitted In Partial Fulfilment Of The Requirements For The Degree Of Master ...
۲-۱۳-۳ Scanning and Skimming Reading. 102
۲-۱۳-۴ Receptive and reflective Reading. 103
۲-۱۴ Critical Reading. 103
۲.۱۴.۱ Approaches to Critical Reading. 106
۲-۱۵ Related Studies on Critical Thinking and Reading Comprehension ۱۰۷
CHAPTER III: Methodology
۳-۱ Introduction. 113
۳-۲ Participants. 114
۳-۳ Instrumentation. 115
۳-۳-۱ PET. 115
۳-۳-۲ Reading Comprehension Pre-Treatment Test 116
۳-۳-۳ Reading Comprehension Post-Test 117
۳-۳-۴ Instructional Materials. 118
۳-۳-۴-۱ Course Book. 118
۳-۳-۳-۲ Pamphlet 118
۳-۳-۴ Procedure. 118
۳-۳-۶ Data Analysis. 136
CHAPTER IV: Results and Discussion
۴-۱ Introduction. 138
۴-۲ Participant Selection. 139
۴-۲-۱ Descriptive Statistics of the Piloting PET Proficiency Test 140
۴-۲-۲ Descriptive Statistics of the PET Proficiency Test 141
۴-۲-۳ Dividing the Participants into Two Groups. 143
۴-۳ Pre-treatment Test 146
۴-۴ Post-test 151
۴-۵ The Results of Testing the Null Hypothesis. 154
۴-۶ Discussion. 156
CHAPTER V: Conclusion, Pedagogical Implications
۵-۱ Introduction. 162
۵-۲ Summary of the Findings. 162
۵-۳ Conclusion. 164
۵-۴ Pedagogical Implications. 165
۵-۵ Suggestions for Further Research. 168
References. 171
APPENDICES
Appendix A 194
Appendix B 195
Appendix C 214
Appendix D 224
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4-1 Descriptive Statistics for PET Proficiency Test piloting. 139
Table 4-2 Reliability of the PET Proficiency Test Piloting. 139
Table 4-3 Descriptive Statistics for PET Proficiency Test 140
Table 4-4 Reliability of the PET. 141
Table 4- 5 Inter-rater Correlation for Writing Section of the PET. 141
Table 4-6 Descriptive statistics of the PET scores of the two groups at the outset 142
Table 4-7 the Results of Normality Check of the Distribution of scores on PET. 143
Table 4-8 Group Statistics for Two Experimental Groups’ PET scores. 144
Table 4-9 Independent Sample T-test for Two Experimental Groups’ PET scores. 144
Table 4-10 Descriptive Statistics for the Results of the Pre-treatment Test 145
Table 4-11 Results of Normality of Distribution of Scores for Reading Comprehension Pre-treatment Test 147
Table 4-12 Results of Normality of Distribution of Scores for Reading Comprehension Pre-treatment Test 147
Table 4-13 Group Statistics T- Test for Pre-treatment Test 148
Table 4-14 Independent Samples T- Test for Pre-treatment Test 148
Table 4-15 Descriptive statistics for the results of the post-test 150
Table 4-16 Results of Normality of Distribution of Scores for Reading Comprehension Post-test 150
Table 4- 17 Results of Skewness Ratio for Reading Comprehension Post-test 150
Table 4-18 Group Statistics of Two Experimental Groups on the Post-test 153
Table 4-19 Independent Samples t-Test of Two Experimental Groups on the Post-test 153
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Elements of Thought (Elder & Paul, 2007) 30
Figure 2-2 Critical Thinking Skills. 51
Figure 2-3 The Relationship between Skills and Dispositions. 53
Figure 2-4 Observation/Inference (O/I) Chart (Nokes, 2008) 95
Figure 3-1 Observation/Inference Chart (Nokes, 2008) 128
Figure 3-2 An Example of O/I Chart 133
Figure 4-1 The Histogram of Scores of PET Main Administration. 143
Figure 4-2 Histogram of the Scores Obtained on the reading Pre-Treatment Test of E1. 146
Figure 4-3 Histogram of the Scores Obtained on the Reading Pre-treatment Test of the E2. 146
Figure 4-4 Histogram of Scores Obtained on the Reading comprehension Post- test of E1. 151
Figure 4-5 Histogram of Scores Obtained on Reading Comprehension Post- test of E2. 152
CHAPTER Ι
Background and Purpose
۱-۱ Introduction
Growth and advancement in educational systems are the most important characteristics of the present societies. This phenomenon, especially in recent decades, has become an important and sensitive issue in developing countries. The role of educational systems in the process of growth and
مطلب دیگر :
فایل رایگان پایان نامه روانشناسی : سازگاری اجتماعی - سازین : تجربه های کارآفرینی و نوآوری
persistent advancement of countries is accepted by everybody. Moreover, education is regarded as a main base of advancement and progress. The most observable and effective character in educational system is the thinking element (Hashemi, Naderi, Seif Naraghi, & Shariatmadari, 2010). Thinking and acquiring new information and the method of thinking and learning are the most important characteristics of human being and from other perspective, in new approaches; the great attention has been paid to teaching and learning by critical thinking which is one of the fundamental phenomena and dimensions in educational systems (Hashemi et al., 2010).
Critical thinking is a necessary skill in promoting the students’ thoughts. It is one of the new models in education system. This model pays special attention to the development of individual and social features of people so that mental power and social responsibilities will be fostered among the learners (Hashemi et al., 2010).
It is hard to formulate an encompassing definition for critical thinking; as it includes several levels of understanding. Paul and Elder (2001) believe that critical thinking is a mode of thinking about any subject, content, or problem. It is an ability with which students can improve their thinking quality by skillfully managing their thinking structures and intellectual criteria around them. Scriven and Paul (2003) define critical thinking as an intellectually disciplined process in which students actively and skillfully conceptualize, apply, synthesize, and evaluate information generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, and communication. Facione (2000) believes that critical thinking is a cognitive process of developing reasonable, logical, and reflective judgment about what to believe or what to do. In the same line, Watson and Glaser (2002) define critical thinking as a composite of attitudes, knowledge and skills. Critical thinking does not expect students to answer the questions put in the class, but instead develops students’ sound judgment for problem-solving, decision-making, and higher-order thinking (Case, 2002; Taylor & Patterson, 2000 as cited in Alizade & Khatib, 2012).
Facione (2011) states that the experts are persuaded that critical thinking is a pervasive and purposeful human phenomenon. The ideal critical thinker can be characterized not merely by her or his cognitive skills but also by how she or he approaches life and living in general.
New trends in education nowadays are focusing on developing critical thinking skills. Fisher (2007, p. 1) asserts that, “in recent years critical thinking has become something of a buzz word in educational circles. For many reasons, educators have become very interested in teaching thinking skills of various kinds in